Sunday, October 31, 2010
Tuesday, October 19, 2010
Wednesday, September 22, 2010
WORLD FIRST 576 MEGA PIXEL CAMERA WITH 2.5 Petabytes
WORLD FIRST 576 MEGA PIXEL CAMERA WITH 2.5 Petabytes is HUMAN EYE
HOW THE EYE WORKS:
Light waves from an object are reflected on the pupil through the cornea. The pupil constricts to accommodate the required light response for optimum vision. The bent light waves are reflected on the crystalline lens and nodal point, located behind the eye lens surface. Here, the image is reversed and inverted, before passing in 'clear focus' on to the retina. The retina registers tiny photons of light and turns light impulses into electrical signals. These signals are sent via the optic nerve, to the occipital cortex. Here the electrical signals are interpreted as a visual image.
HOW THE BRAIN WORKS:
We use the cerebellum to store information and the brain
sorts all the information we give it into different categories. The
categories are scattered through the cerebellum and a complete bit of
information is often stored all over the brain. We store different types
of information in different sections within that scattering, such as
long term memories, such as events from our childhoods and temporary or
short term memories as in an item we need to replenish on our next trip
to the grocery store. The brain is able to pull up this information that
it has stored by using its internal filing system.
How does the
brain receive the information ? The information is series of electrical
impulses that our sensory organs have received, passed to the brain from
one neuron to another. The information goes through the nerves in the
body and then the brain registers, and sorts the information. The
information or memories are either stored for future use, long term use
or immediate use.
Sunday, September 19, 2010
HOW BANYAN & MANGO BECAME NATIONAL TREE & FRUIT
THE BANYAN
THE BANYAN TREE Called the Indian fig tree( Ficus bengalensis) grow over a large area.
The roots then give rise to more trunks and branches. Because of this characteristic & longevity, the Banyan tree is considered immortal & sacred and is an integral part of the myths and legends in India. Even today, the banyan tree is the focal point of village life and the village council meetings under the shade of this huge shade-giving tree.
THE MANGO
The fruit Mango,of the tree Mangifera indica, is one of the most widely cultivated fruits of the tropical world. This juicy, delicious fruit is a rich source of Vitamins A, C and D. In India there are hundreds of varieties of mangoes, in different sizes, shapes and colours etc. Mangoes, have been cultivated in India since time immemorial. The famous Indian poet Kalidasa sang its praises.King Alexander relished its taste, as did the Chinese traveller Hieun Tsang. Akbar, the Moghal emperor planted over 100,000 mango trees in Darbhanga, known as Lakhi Bagh(India).
THE BANYAN TREE Called the Indian fig tree( Ficus bengalensis) grow over a large area.
The roots then give rise to more trunks and branches. Because of this characteristic & longevity, the Banyan tree is considered immortal & sacred and is an integral part of the myths and legends in India. Even today, the banyan tree is the focal point of village life and the village council meetings under the shade of this huge shade-giving tree.
THE MANGO
The fruit Mango,of the tree Mangifera indica, is one of the most widely cultivated fruits of the tropical world. This juicy, delicious fruit is a rich source of Vitamins A, C and D. In India there are hundreds of varieties of mangoes, in different sizes, shapes and colours etc. Mangoes, have been cultivated in India since time immemorial. The famous Indian poet Kalidasa sang its praises.King Alexander relished its taste, as did the Chinese traveller Hieun Tsang. Akbar, the Moghal emperor planted over 100,000 mango trees in Darbhanga, known as Lakhi Bagh(India).
Saturday, September 18, 2010
HOW LOTUS & PEACOCK BECAME our NATIONAL FLOWER & BIRD
THE LOTUS
The various flowers of Indian sub-continent, the flower Lotus is regarded with divinity and grace. Often, Goddesses Lakshmi and Saraswathi are associated with the flower lotus. Even Lord Siva, who wanted to escape the wrath of the Lord Saneeswaran, morphed himself into the shape of a bee and took asylum inside a lotus. Buddhists regard this flower as a sacred one.
As the world famous 'Thirukural' says,
"Vellathanayathu malar neetam manthartham
ullath thanyathu ouyarvu"
Lotus symbolizes purity, beauty, majesty, grace, fertility, wealth, richness, knowledge and serenity. They are found in white and pink colors in general and they grow in shallow and murky waters. Some blue colored flowers are also sighted. These flowers enjoy a warm sunlight and intolerant to cold weather. Hence they cannot be seen blossoming in the winter. The floating leaves and flowers have long stems, which contains air spaces to maintain buoyancy.
Peacock
Peacock is a large and majestic bird. It has got a long and beautiful tail. Both the peacock and the hen have crest. But the crest of hen is smaller in size. The main body of the cock is mottled brown in color. Especially, the metallic green color found on the lower neck is very attractive. Though peacocks are beautiful looking birds their calls are loud and coarse.
They move in-groups and they are normally spotted in the forests, villages and nearby fields. They are shy in nature. It feeds on lizards, snakes, grains and insects. The hen lays a maximum of five eggs, which are in pale cream color.
The significance of peacock is attached to cultures of India, Far East, Ancient Persia, Greek and Christian. In Hinduism, the image of the god of thunder, rains and war, Indra, was depicted in the form of a peacock. In south India, peacock is considered as a 'vahana' or vehilce of lord Muruga. The figure of peacock is painted in various Islamic religious buildings. In Christianity, the peacock was also known as the symbol of the 'Resurrection'.
In India people believe that whenever the cock spread its tails in an ornamental fashion, it indicates that rain is imminent. In a way it is partly true. At the sight of dark clouds the bird outspreads its tail and starts dancing in rhythmic fashion. Most of the folklore including Bharatha Natyam has got special dancing poses for the peacock dance.
The various flowers of Indian sub-continent, the flower Lotus is regarded with divinity and grace. Often, Goddesses Lakshmi and Saraswathi are associated with the flower lotus. Even Lord Siva, who wanted to escape the wrath of the Lord Saneeswaran, morphed himself into the shape of a bee and took asylum inside a lotus. Buddhists regard this flower as a sacred one.
As the world famous 'Thirukural' says,
"Vellathanayathu malar neetam manthartham
ullath thanyathu ouyarvu"
Lotus symbolizes purity, beauty, majesty, grace, fertility, wealth, richness, knowledge and serenity. They are found in white and pink colors in general and they grow in shallow and murky waters. Some blue colored flowers are also sighted. These flowers enjoy a warm sunlight and intolerant to cold weather. Hence they cannot be seen blossoming in the winter. The floating leaves and flowers have long stems, which contains air spaces to maintain buoyancy.
Peacock
Peacock is a large and majestic bird. It has got a long and beautiful tail. Both the peacock and the hen have crest. But the crest of hen is smaller in size. The main body of the cock is mottled brown in color. Especially, the metallic green color found on the lower neck is very attractive. Though peacocks are beautiful looking birds their calls are loud and coarse.
They move in-groups and they are normally spotted in the forests, villages and nearby fields. They are shy in nature. It feeds on lizards, snakes, grains and insects. The hen lays a maximum of five eggs, which are in pale cream color.
The significance of peacock is attached to cultures of India, Far East, Ancient Persia, Greek and Christian. In Hinduism, the image of the god of thunder, rains and war, Indra, was depicted in the form of a peacock. In south India, peacock is considered as a 'vahana' or vehilce of lord Muruga. The figure of peacock is painted in various Islamic religious buildings. In Christianity, the peacock was also known as the symbol of the 'Resurrection'.
In India people believe that whenever the cock spread its tails in an ornamental fashion, it indicates that rain is imminent. In a way it is partly true. At the sight of dark clouds the bird outspreads its tail and starts dancing in rhythmic fashion. Most of the folklore including Bharatha Natyam has got special dancing poses for the peacock dance.
Friday, September 17, 2010
HOW & WHEN TIGER BECAME NATIONAL ANIMAL
Tiger(Linnaeus), was chosen as the National animal of India due to its grace, strength, agility and enormous power. As the tiger is also considered as the king of Jungle, it was an obvious choice for the National Animal category. Since time immemorial, the tiger has been considered as a Royal Animal. Often, The Tiger as the National Animal of India symbolizes the power, strength, elegance, alertness, intelligence and endurance of the nation.Out of eight races of the species known, the Indian race, the Royal Bengal Tiger, is found throughout the country except in the north-western region and also in the neighbouring countries, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh.
Due to the extreme threat of extinction of the tiger species from the country, the Indian Government launched Project Tiger in 1973. Project tiger was focused to preserve the remaining tiger population in the country and increase the breeding of the species so that new population could be added to the existing one. Under this Project, 23 tiger reserves were established throughout the country, covering an area of 33,406 sq. km for providing safe and comfortable shelter to the tigers in the natural environment. By 1993, there was much improvement in the tiger population in the country. However despite the increase in population, the population of tigers in the country is still not satisfactory compared to the effort and money put in the project. This is due to the illegal poaching of the tigers and negligence of authorities towards the alarming situation of the tiger population in the country.
Thursday, September 16, 2010
HOW & WHEN OUR NATIONAL FLAG BORN
first flag specialise for INDIAThe Calcutta - Flag :
Lord Curzon was the viceroy of India from 1898 to 1905. He antagonised the Indians by promulgating many
unpopular laws. But his decision to partition Bengal in the name of better administration, when the nation was
groaning under the havoc caused by famine, earthquake and the plague was most unfortunate. The scheme of
partition was to merge the eastern districts of Decca, Shahi and Chittagaon with Assam and form a new
province of ' East Bengal and Assam '. The rest of Bengal was to be joined to Orissa and the new Province was to be called ' Bengal '. Britisher's tried ' divide and rule ' policy and wanted to set Hindus against Muslims.
On August 7, 1906, the first anniversary of the anti-partition movement, a big rally was organised at Parsi Bagan Squre (Greer Park) in Calcutta. For the first time a tricolour flag was unfurled there. The moving spirit behind thedesign of this flag was Schindra Prasad Bose, a close follower of Sir Surendranath Banerjee and the son-in-law of the moderate Brahmo leader, Krishna Kumar Mitra. The flag they designed had open lotuses on the topgreen, yellow and red. It had eight half open lotuses on the green stripe, Vande Mataram in blue on the middle yellow stripe, and the sun and moon (crescent) in white on the bottom red stripe. This flag was for the first time hoisted at the Parsi Bagan Square on August 7, 1906, which was observed as Boycott Day to protest against the partition of Bengal, Narendranath Sen ceremonially the flag and sang a song.
Sister Nivedita's Flag :
Wednesday, September 15, 2010
Independence movements
1857:
The first Indian war of Independence.
India's First War of Independence, termed Sepoy Riots by the British was an attempt to unite India against the invading British and to restore power to the Mogul emperor Bahadur Shah. The resistance disintegrated primarily due to lack of leadership and unity on the part of Indians, as also to cruel suppression by the British Army. It was a remarkable event in Indian history and marked the end of the Mogul empire and sealed India's fate as a British colony for the next hundred years.
1885:
Indian National Congress is formed by Allen Octavian Hume.
Subsequent to the Sepy Mutiny(1857), some Englishmen in India felt that a harmony between the ruling English and the Indian people has to be built and Sir Allen Octavian Hume founded the Indian National Union which gave way to the Indian National Congress (INC). Titans such as Gopalakrishna Gokhale, Lala Lajpat Rai, Gandhiji and Subhas Chandra Bose served on its presidency. The Congress(I) as it is known today in India, remains as a very important political force and is currently leading the government.
1915:
Home Rule League is founded by Annie Besant.
1919 :
Khilafat Movement, Jalianwala Bagh Massacre, The Rowlat Act
April 13, 1919 - At the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre in Amritsar, Punjab, British and Gurkha troops massacre 379 Sikhs.
1920:
Non-cooperation movement launched.
1921/1922:
Chauri-Chaura violence due to Civil Disobedience Movement.
Feb 4, 1922: The Chauri Chaura incident occurs, where a mob of about 3000 kills some policemen. With the Non-cooperation movement (NCM) taking an increasingly violent form, this is the last straw to Mahatma Gandhi's sense of discipline. He immediately calls for suspension of the NCM, to the horror of many Congress activists.
1928
Murder of Lala Lajpat Rai and subsequent revolutionary activities.
The Indian National Congress declares 26 January 1930 as Independence Day, or the day for Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence).
1930 :
The Dandi Salt March, The Simon Commission, First Round Table Conference.
April 5, 1930: In an act of civil disobedience, Mahatma Gandhi breaks British law after marching to the sea and making salt.
1931:
Second Round Table Conference, Gandhi- Irvin Pact, Revolution leader Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev are hanged by the Birtish government on March 23.
1937:
Provincial Autonomy Begins with Congress winning power in many states. WWII breaks out and there is political deadlock in India
1942:
The Quit India Movement, Rise of Subhas Chandra Bose.
Quit India resolution was passed by the Bombay session of the (All India Congress Committee) AICC, which led to the start of a historical civil disobedience movement across India.
Bose was another important leader of the Indian Independence movement, besides Jawaharlal Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi. He was the president of the Indian National Congress in 1937 and 1939, and founded a nationalist force called the Indian National Army (INA).
1946:
INA men tried. Muslim League Adamant about Pakistan.
1947:
India is partitioned and Pakistan is formed. British Leave India - Freedom at Midnight. Jawahar Lal Nehru is India's first prime minister. On 3rd June 1947, Lord Louis Mounbatten announced partition of India into two countries: union of India, and an Islamic Pakistan. In this partition many people died and got separated from their families. On midnight of 14th August 1947, India became an independent country, and still is today. On 26th January 1950, India adopted a constitution.
Monday, September 13, 2010
INDIA AGES
The Bronze Age
• Vedic Civilization • The Rise of Kingdoms • Maurya Dynasty • Shunga Dynasty
The Golden Age
• Satavahana Empire • Kushan Empire • Gupta Dynasty
The Classical Age
• Harsha's Empire • The Chalukyas, Pallavas, and Pandyas • Chola Empire
• Pratiharas - Palas - Rashtrakutas • The Rajputs • Vijayanagar Empire
• The Islamic Sultanates • Delhi Sultanate • The Mughal Empire
• The Maratha Confederacy • The Kingdom of Mysore • The Punjab - Sikh Empire
• Company Rule & The British Raj • The Independence Movement
The Bronze Age
Vedic Civilization
Indian civilization and culture is not only ancient but it is also extensive and varied. Many races and peoples have contributed and enriched it. Vedic civilization is the earliest civilization in Indian history. It is named after the Vedas, the early literature of the Hindu people. This civilization is the foundation of Hinduism and the associated Indian culture that is known today.
The kingdom of the Kurus marks flowering of the Vedic civilization, corresponding to the Black and Red Ware and the beginning of the Iron Age in Northwestern India begins, around 1000 BC, likely also contemporary with the composition of the Atharvaveda.
Mahajanapadas
Mahajanapadas literally means "Great kingdoms". The word has taken from Sanskrit Maha = great, Janapada = foothold of tribe = country. By 500 BC, sixteen monarchies and 'republics' known as the Mahajanapadas stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bangladesh.
The Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (Solasa Mahajanapadas) which were in existence before the time of Buddha. They do not give any connected history except in the case of Magadha. The Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya, at several places, gives a list of sixteen nations:
1. Kasi
2. Kosala
3. Anga
4. Magadha
5. Vajji (or Vriji)
6. Malla
7. Chedi
8. Vatsa (or Vamsa)
9. Kuru
10. Panchala
11. Machcha (or Matsya)
12. Surasena
13. Assaka
14. Avanti
15. Gandhara
16. Kamboja
The Rise of Kingdoms
The end of the Vedic Age (1500 BC-600 BC) was followed by the rise of small kingdoms and republics in the northern parts of India and especially in the Gangetic plains of Bihar.
Maurya Dynasty
The Mauryan Empire was the first major empire in the history of India and ruled the land from 322 BC to 185 BC. Important rulers of this dynasty were Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and King Ashoka. Bindusara was succeeded by his son Ashoka, the most famous of the Mauryan Kings who reign from- 273 - 232 B.C. He extended the boundaries of his empire considerably - stretching from Kashmir and Peshawar in the North and Northwest to Mysore in the South and Orissa in the East - but his fame rests not so much on military conquests as on his celebrated renunciation of war. After witnessing the carnage at the battle field of Kalinga (269 B.C.) in Orissa, Ashoka resolved to dedicate himself to Dhamma - or righteousness. The war of Kalinga was the turning point in the life of Ashoka to the extent that he shunned all forms of violence and became a strict vegetarian.
As Ashoka became a devout Buddhist, he began to spread the teachings of Buddha by issuing edicts. These edicts were sent to different parts of the empire, where they were engraved on rocks or pillars, for the common people to see and read them. These edicts were written in different scripts. Most of them were in Brahmi, which was common in most parts of the empire. The language was generally Prakrit (ancient language), as it was spoken by the common people, whereas Sanskrit was spoken by educated upper caste people.
The great Mauryan Empire did not last long after the death of Ashoka and ended in 185 BC. Weak kings on one hand and the unmanageability of a vast empire on the other caused the rapid decline of the Mauryas.
Shunga Dynasty
Ashoka died around 232 B.C. and the empire began to disintegrate under weak successors. Pushyamitra Shunga, a Brahmin general usurped the throne after slaying the last Maurya king and presided over a loosely federal polity. In subsequent centuries India suffered a series of invasions, and in the absence of a strong central authority, often fell under the spell of foreign rulers - Indo Bactrians, the Sakas and others.
The Golden Age
Satavahana Empire
The fall of the Mauryan empire and the confusion caused due to it gave birth to a new dynasty called Satavahanas, also called as Andhra dynasty. Satavahanas is one of the most celebrated dynasties of ancient India. Satavahanas ruled over large area of modern western and southern India. King Simuka, belonging to the Satavahana family in present day Andhra Pradesh founded the Satavahana dynasty after defeating the Mauryan rule in the Deccan. Satavahana kings ruled much of Deccan plateau from 50 B.C to 250 A.D. But it was his son or nephew Satakarni I who made Satavahanas as most formidable power of western and southern India.
There were twenty-nine rulers of this dynasty according to Matsya Purana. The kings of this dynasty were great patrons of art and architecture. Buddhism flourished throughout the period and the rulers were also devoted to Vedic ritualism. They constructed several Buddhist Stupas, Viharas and Chaityas.
The decline and fall of the Satavahana Empire left the Andhra country in a political chaos. Local rulers as well as invaders tried to carve out small kingdoms for themselves and to establish many dynasties. During the period from AD 180 to AD 624 Ikshvakus, Vishnukundins, Vakatakas, Pallavas, Anandagotras, Kalingas and others ruled over the Andhra area with their small kingdoms.
Kushan Empire (ca. 2nd century b.c.-3rd century a.d.)
The post-Mauryan period from 185 BC to AD 300 saw the emergence of a number of kingdoms all over the Indian subcontinent. Some of these states were small, while others like that of the Kushans were large. This period witnessed a spurt in migrations into India, rise in foreign trade, and development of art. In short, the time scale between 1st century BC and 3rd century AD was a period of flux.
The Kushans originated from the Turkistan region of China. They moved towards Afghanistan in the 1st century AD and after displacing the Indo-Greeks, the Parthians and the Sakas, they established themselves in Taxila and Peshawar. The name Kushan derives from the Chinese term Guishang, used in historical writings to describe one branch of the Yuezhi-a loose confederation of Indo-European people who had been living in northwestern China until they were driven west by another group.
A number of foreigners came to India in successive waves of migrations between 200 BC and AD 100. These people settled down in different parts of India. They brought with them their own distinct cultural flavor, which, after mixing with the local cultures, enriched the cultural ethos of India. The foreigners who came into India were the Bactrian Greeks (also called the 'Indo-Greeks'), the Parthians, the Sakas, and the Kushans. With the exception of the Greeks, all others came from Central Asia. Under the rule of the Kushans, northwest India and adjoining regions participated both in seagoing trade and in commerce along the Silk Road to China.
The rule of Kanishka, the third Kushan emperor who flourished from the late first to the early/mid-second century A.D., was administered from two capitals: Purushapura (now Peshawar) near the Khyber Pass, and Mathura in northern India. Under Kanishka's rule, at the height of the dynasty, Kushan controlled a large territory ranging from the Aral Sea through areas that include present-day Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan into northern India as far east as Benares and as far south as Sanchi.
Gupta Dynasty
Gupta dynasty was ruled from around 320 to 600 CE and covered most of Northern India. It was one of the largest political and military empires in the world. The time of the Gupta Dynasty is referred to as Golden Age of India. It signaled the emergance of a leader, a Magadha ruler, Chandragupta I. Chandragupta successfully combated the foreign invasion and laid foundation of the great Gupta dynasty, the emperors of which ruled for the next 300 years, bringing the most prosperous era in Indian history. Srigupta I (270-290 AD) who was perhaps a petty ruler of Magadha (modern Bihar) established Gupta dynasty with Patliputra or Patna as its capital.
Samudragupta was perhaps the greatest king of Gupta dynasty. He ruled from around 335 to 380 AD. But the most detailed and authentic record of his reign is preserved in the rock pillar of the Allahabad, composed by Harisena.
Samudragupta's son, Chandragupta II tried to be better than his father, and most historians agree he was certainly successful. Vikramaditya is THE LEGENDARY emperor of India. During his reign India was at the prosperity and luxuriousness, so he also took a title of 'Vikramaditya'. Vikramaditya's reign was perhaps the most prosperous and progressive reign in the entire Indian history.
Vikramaditya was succeeded by his able son Kumargupta I. He maintained his hold over the vast empire of his forebears, which covered most of India except southern four states of India. He ruled from 415-455 AD. He performed the Ashwamegha Yagna and proclaimed himself to be Chakrawarti, king of all kings. During his reign the Gupta Empire was at its zenith.
After Kumargupta I, Skandagupta has succeeded the Gupta Dynasty. When Skandagupta took over the Gupta Empire, he had faced formidable enemies, the Huns. He successfully repelled their early invasions and proved to be able king and administrator in time of crisis. In spite of heroic efforts of SkandaGupta, Gupta empire did not survive long the shock it received from invasion of the Huns and internal uprising of Pushyamitras.
The Classical Age
Harsha's Empire
Harsha or Harshavardhana was an Indian emperor who ruled Northern India for over forty years. He was the son of Prabhakar Vardhan and younger brother of Rajyavardhan, a king of Thanesar. He ruled from 590-647 AD. Harshavardhana made efforts at empire building in the second half of the seventh century. He belonged to the Pushabhukti family, who ruled in Thaneshwar, north of Delhi. Harsha was perhaps one of the greatest conquerors of Indian history, and unlike all of his conquering predecessors, he was a brilliant administrator. He was also a great patron of culture.
His reign is comparatively well documented by his court poet, Bana, who composed an account of his rise to power, Harshacharita. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, Hieun Tsang, who visited India during his reign, also left a lengthy account of his travels. Hieun Tsang noticed that at the time of Harsha, Buddhism was not as popular in all parts of India as he had thought it would be. But in eastern India, it was still popular. Nalanda University was still a famous center of Buddhism. He also recorded the existence of a rigid caste system.
The most significant achievements of this period, however, were in religion, education, mathematics, art, and Sanskrit literature and drama. Soon after Harsha's death, apparently without any heirs, his empire died with him. After Harsha Vardhana North and north west part of India was mostly controlled by Pratihara Kings while Central India and part of South was mostly under Rashtrakutas dynasty (753-973 AD ) Pala Kings (750-1161 AD) ruled the Eastern part of India (present Bengal and Bihar).
The Chalukyas, Pallavas, and Pandyas
After Satvahan, the next great empire in the Deccan was the Chalukya Empire. Pulakesin I, first ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. Pulakesin II was the greatest ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. The Chalukyas built their kingdom on the ruins of the Vakatakas, who in turn had built theirs on the remains of the Satavahanas. They established their capital at Vatapi (modern Badami). The Chalukyas were sworn enemies of the Pallavas and rose to power in Karnataka. The first great ruler of the Chalukya dynasty was Pulakesin I. The kingdom was further extended by his sons Kirtivarman and Mangalesa by waging many successful wars against the neighbours including Mauryans of the Konkans. They were overthrown by a chief named Dantidurga who laid the foundation of the next great empire of Karnataka and Maharashtra, that of Rashtrakutas.
Pallavas established a capital at Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu state) and came to hold sway in the south. Sivaskandhavarman who ruled in the first part of the fourth century CE was an independent ruler. He established his capital at Kanchi which continued as Pallava capital for centuries. Huen Tsang the Chinese monk-scholar, who visited Kanchi in 642 CE, writes that the Pallava country was more than thousand miles in area and calls it Dravidanadu. They were defeated by the Guptas in about 360 AD but continued to rule until the Cholas finally conquered their lands. Later, in the 9th century, the Pallava themselves were definitely conquered by the Chola from Tanjore and became their vassals.
Pandyas were the longest ruling dynasty of Indian history. They ruled the southern most part of India and the capital of the Pandya kings was Madurai (Tamil Nadu). First Indian Ambassador from Pandya Dynasty is sent to Rome in 26 BC. After defeating the kalabhras the Pandya rulers ruled between 550 AD to 950 AD. They were called as first Pandyas. After the fall of the great pallavas and the cholas once again the Pandyas ruled the Tamil country from 1190 AD to 1310 AD. The first Pandyan Empire continued till the beginning of the Tenth Century A.D. The Cholas defeated the Pandyan ruler, Rajasimha II. Later, Veerapandya (A.D. 946-966), the last ruler of the first Pandyan Empire had been defeated and killed by Adhithya Chola. It was the end of the first Pandyan Empire.
Chola Empire
The Cholas are the earliest and the most ancient among the South Indian royal houses. The artifacts of the period found in South India mention Mahabharata as well as Ashokan edicts. They conquered Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Srivijaya, Malaya, and the Maldives islands. They had powerful navy and their marine trade and commerce extended to far east. Their art and architecture have their impact in Sumatra and Java islands of Indonesia, and in many parts of Malaysia.
The two greatest Chola kings were Rajaraja I (reigned 985-1014) who invaded Northern Cyprus and his son Rajendra Cholavarma who reigned from 1014-1044. During their reigns, Chola military expeditions were sent to the Ganges valley and the Malay archipelago, and magnificent temples were built at Tanjore. The revenue of the Cholas came from 'tax on land' and 'tax on trade'. Trade was carried on with west Asia, China and Southeast Asia. The high volume of trade led to the rapid development of towns from the 11th century onwards.
During this period, several regional languages branched off from Sanskrit. Marathi evolved from the local Prakrit, while Tamil, Telugu and Kannada stemmed from a Dravidian root, but owed much to Sanskrit. More important than the kings and their conquests is the cultural and artistic record of those times. The temple was the cultural and social center, where people used to gather.
Pratiharas - Palas - Rashtrakutas
The Pratiharas are believed to be the clan of Rajputs. The greatest ruler of the Pratihara dynasty was Mihir Bhoja. He recovered Kanauj (Kanyakubja) by 836, and it remained the capital of the Pratiharas for almost a century. The Pratihara dynasty started well under the ruler Nagabhatta-I. Though initially he had hiccups with the Rashtrakutas, he was able to leave behind a strong State comprising Malwa, parts of Rajputana and Gujarat. His successor Nagabhatta-II (805 - 839 AD) showed his military capabilities by checking out Muslim advancement and the victory over Andhra, Vidharbha, Vatsa, Sindhu and Kalinga. Towards the end of 10th century, the prestige of the Pratiharas came to and end with the humiliating submission of Rajyapala to Mahmood in 1018 AD. The successors of Pratiharas like Trilochanapala, Yasapala continued reigning for another century.
The Pala empire was founded in 730 AD. They ruled over parts of Bengal and Bihar. Dharmapala (780-812 AD) was one of the greatest kings of the Pala dynasty. He did much to restore the greatness of Pataliputra. The Nalanda University was revived under their rule. The Palas had close trade contacts and cultural links with South-East Asia.
Dantidurga laid the foundation of Rashtrakuta Empire. The Rashtrakuta's empire was the most powerful of the time. They ruled from Lattaluru (Latur), and later shifted the capital to Manyaketa (Malkhed).
The Rajputs
The Rajput who held the stage of feudal rulers before the coming of the Muslims, were a brave and chivalrous race. The name rajputs was originally taken from Raj-Putra i.e. prince or literally "king's son". In actual fact although they were Kshatriyas in the Hindu caste hierarchy, they seem to have genetically descended from the Shakas and Hunas who had invaded north India during the Gupta period and had subsequently settled down in North India and due to their war-like attitudes and been absorbed as Kshatriyas into Hindu society. Prithviraj Chouhan, Maharana Pratap was great rajput kings. According to a mythical narration, the Rajputs originated from the sacrificial fire performed by Vashistha and other saints near the Nakhi Lake on Mount Abu with a view to containing the growing strength of demons.
Vijayanagar Empire
After the departure of Muhammad bin Tughlak from the Deccan, Harihara declared independence. He and his brother Bukka I under the guidance of famous Hindu saint and the head of Sringeri Math, Vidyaranyasvami, who is also identified with the distinguished jurist Madhav Mantri, established the mighty Hindu Kingdom of Vijaynagar (the City of Victory) in 1336 AD. Vijaynagar illuminated the landscape of Deccan History for 229 years (1336-1565 AD). By 1347 AD, Malerajya and Palasige of the Goa Kadambas were incorporated into the Vijaynagar Empire. Goa formed a strategically and commercially important province on the western border of the Vijaynagar Empire.
The Islamic Sultanates
The Mughal emperors were from Afghanistan, northwest of India. Their family came from somewhere else, and they spoke Turkish and Persian, not Indian languages. Even so, they stayed in India and built their power there.
Delhi Sultanate
During the last quarter of the twelfth century, Muhammad of Ghor invaded the Indo-Gangetic plain, conquering in succession Ghazni, Multan, Sindh, Lahore, and Delhi. Qutb-ud-din Aybak, one of his generals proclaimed himself Sultan of Delhi. In the 13th century, Shams ud din Iltumish (1211 - 1236), a former slave-warrior, established a Turkic kingdom in Delhi, which enabled future sultans to push in every direction; within the next 100 years, the Delhi Sultanate extended its way east to Bengal and south to the Deccan, while the sultanate itself experienced repeated threats from the northwest and internal revolts from displeased, independent-minded nobles. The sultanate was in constant flux as five dynasties rose and fell: the Slave dynasty (1206-90), Khalji dynasty (1290-1320), Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413), Sayyid dynasty (1414-51), and Lodi dynasty (1451-1526).
The Mughal Empire
The first Battle of Panipat gave a deathblow to the Lodhi Empire and marked the end of the Delhi Sultanate's rule in India. It led to the establishment of the Mughal Empire in India. Babar defeated Lodi at Panipat, not far from Delhi, and so came to establish the Mughal Empire in India. Babar ruled until 1530, and was succeeded by his son Humayun, who gave the empire its first distinctive features. But it is Humayun's son, Akbar the Great, who is conventionally described as the glory of the empire. Akbar reigned from 1556 to 1605, and extended his empire as far to the west as Afghanistan, and as far south as the Godavari river. Akbar was succeeded by his son Salim, who took the title of Jahangir. In his reign (1605-1627), Jahangir consolidated the gains made by his father. The Mughal Empire survived until 1857, but its rulers were, after 1803, pensioners of the East India Company. The last emperor, the senile Bahadur Shah Zafar, was put on trial for allegedly leading the rebels of the 1857 mutiny and for fomenting sedition.
The Maratha Confederacy
The Maratha Kingdom was founded by Shivaji in 1674. The tiny Maratha kingdom, established by Chattrapati Shivaji was expanded by the Peshwas, who were the Brahmin Prime Ministers. The real credit for expanding the Maratha kingdom goes to Bajirao Peshwa I (1721-1740). The Peshwas subsequently ruled the Maratha Kingdom as defacto rulers. The Maratha Kingdom come end with the defeat of Maratha's by an Afghan army at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
The Kingdom of Mysore
Mysore is correlated to the ruling of the Wodeyar dynasty, Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan though several prominent South Indian dynasties have ruled this place. The traditional founding of the Wodeyar dynasty took place in 1399 with Yaduraya. Since then, 24 rulers have succeeded in the dynasty, the last being Jayachamaraja Wodeyar. Till the year 1610, when Srirangapatna was acquired, Mysore was the center of Wodeyar administration. It became the capital of the Kingdom of Mysore after the death of Tippu Sultan at the end of the Anglo-Mysore Wars in 1799.
The Punjab - Sikh Empire
The Sikhs established their empire in the Punjab after the death of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir in 1707. Charat Singh, who was the head of one of Sikh Clans, established his stronghold in Gujranwala in 1763. Maharaja Ranjit Singh was the most powerful of all the Sikh Rulers and ruled over for complete 40 years. Ranjit Singh was also known as "The Lion of the Punjab," he died of paralysis on the 27th of June 1839. After his death the Sikh Empire was divided into small principalities looked after by several Sikh Jagirdars.
Company Rule & The British Raj
The company first established a toehold in India in 1612, when the Mughal emperor Jahangir granted them the right to establish a trading post (called a factory by the company) in Surat. Later in the century, the British East India Company opened permanent trading stations at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, each under the protection of native rulers. A settlement at Calcutta was established in 1690, again with the permission of the Mughal Empire. The company vied with the Portuguese and rival Dutch, French, and Danish companies. The French set up base along with the British in the 17th century. They occupied large parts of southern India. The British Empire in India - A multiplicity of motives underlay the British penetration into India: commerce, security, and a purported moral uplift of the people. The "expansive force" of private and company trade eventually led to the conquest or annexation of territories in which spices, cotton, and opium were produced.
The Independence Movement
The Bronze Age
• Vedic Civilization • The Rise of Kingdoms • Maurya Dynasty • Shunga Dynasty
The Golden Age
• Satavahana Empire • Kushan Empire • Gupta Dynasty
The Classical Age
• Harsha's Empire • The Chalukyas, Pallavas, and Pandyas • Chola Empire
• Pratiharas - Palas - Rashtrakutas • The Rajputs • Vijayanagar Empire
• The Islamic Sultanates • Delhi Sultanate • The Mughal Empire
• The Maratha Confederacy • The Kingdom of Mysore • The Punjab - Sikh Empire
• Company Rule & The British Raj • The Independence Movement
The Bronze Age
Vedic Civilization
Indian civilization and culture is not only ancient but it is also extensive and varied. Many races and peoples have contributed and enriched it. Vedic civilization is the earliest civilization in Indian history. It is named after the Vedas, the early literature of the Hindu people. This civilization is the foundation of Hinduism and the associated Indian culture that is known today.
The kingdom of the Kurus marks flowering of the Vedic civilization, corresponding to the Black and Red Ware and the beginning of the Iron Age in Northwestern India begins, around 1000 BC, likely also contemporary with the composition of the Atharvaveda.
Mahajanapadas
Mahajanapadas literally means "Great kingdoms". The word has taken from Sanskrit Maha = great, Janapada = foothold of tribe = country. By 500 BC, sixteen monarchies and 'republics' known as the Mahajanapadas stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bangladesh.
The Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (Solasa Mahajanapadas) which were in existence before the time of Buddha. They do not give any connected history except in the case of Magadha. The Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya, at several places, gives a list of sixteen nations:
1. Kasi
2. Kosala
3. Anga
4. Magadha
5. Vajji (or Vriji)
6. Malla
7. Chedi
8. Vatsa (or Vamsa)
9. Kuru
10. Panchala
11. Machcha (or Matsya)
12. Surasena
13. Assaka
14. Avanti
15. Gandhara
16. Kamboja
The Rise of Kingdoms
The end of the Vedic Age (1500 BC-600 BC) was followed by the rise of small kingdoms and republics in the northern parts of India and especially in the Gangetic plains of Bihar.
Maurya Dynasty
The Mauryan Empire was the first major empire in the history of India and ruled the land from 322 BC to 185 BC. Important rulers of this dynasty were Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and King Ashoka. Bindusara was succeeded by his son Ashoka, the most famous of the Mauryan Kings who reign from- 273 - 232 B.C. He extended the boundaries of his empire considerably - stretching from Kashmir and Peshawar in the North and Northwest to Mysore in the South and Orissa in the East - but his fame rests not so much on military conquests as on his celebrated renunciation of war. After witnessing the carnage at the battle field of Kalinga (269 B.C.) in Orissa, Ashoka resolved to dedicate himself to Dhamma - or righteousness. The war of Kalinga was the turning point in the life of Ashoka to the extent that he shunned all forms of violence and became a strict vegetarian.
As Ashoka became a devout Buddhist, he began to spread the teachings of Buddha by issuing edicts. These edicts were sent to different parts of the empire, where they were engraved on rocks or pillars, for the common people to see and read them. These edicts were written in different scripts. Most of them were in Brahmi, which was common in most parts of the empire. The language was generally Prakrit (ancient language), as it was spoken by the common people, whereas Sanskrit was spoken by educated upper caste people.
The great Mauryan Empire did not last long after the death of Ashoka and ended in 185 BC. Weak kings on one hand and the unmanageability of a vast empire on the other caused the rapid decline of the Mauryas.
Shunga Dynasty
Ashoka died around 232 B.C. and the empire began to disintegrate under weak successors. Pushyamitra Shunga, a Brahmin general usurped the throne after slaying the last Maurya king and presided over a loosely federal polity. In subsequent centuries India suffered a series of invasions, and in the absence of a strong central authority, often fell under the spell of foreign rulers - Indo Bactrians, the Sakas and others.
The Golden Age
Satavahana Empire
The fall of the Mauryan empire and the confusion caused due to it gave birth to a new dynasty called Satavahanas, also called as Andhra dynasty. Satavahanas is one of the most celebrated dynasties of ancient India. Satavahanas ruled over large area of modern western and southern India. King Simuka, belonging to the Satavahana family in present day Andhra Pradesh founded the Satavahana dynasty after defeating the Mauryan rule in the Deccan. Satavahana kings ruled much of Deccan plateau from 50 B.C to 250 A.D. But it was his son or nephew Satakarni I who made Satavahanas as most formidable power of western and southern India.
There were twenty-nine rulers of this dynasty according to Matsya Purana. The kings of this dynasty were great patrons of art and architecture. Buddhism flourished throughout the period and the rulers were also devoted to Vedic ritualism. They constructed several Buddhist Stupas, Viharas and Chaityas.
The decline and fall of the Satavahana Empire left the Andhra country in a political chaos. Local rulers as well as invaders tried to carve out small kingdoms for themselves and to establish many dynasties. During the period from AD 180 to AD 624 Ikshvakus, Vishnukundins, Vakatakas, Pallavas, Anandagotras, Kalingas and others ruled over the Andhra area with their small kingdoms.
Kushan Empire (ca. 2nd century b.c.-3rd century a.d.)
The post-Mauryan period from 185 BC to AD 300 saw the emergence of a number of kingdoms all over the Indian subcontinent. Some of these states were small, while others like that of the Kushans were large. This period witnessed a spurt in migrations into India, rise in foreign trade, and development of art. In short, the time scale between 1st century BC and 3rd century AD was a period of flux.
The Kushans originated from the Turkistan region of China. They moved towards Afghanistan in the 1st century AD and after displacing the Indo-Greeks, the Parthians and the Sakas, they established themselves in Taxila and Peshawar. The name Kushan derives from the Chinese term Guishang, used in historical writings to describe one branch of the Yuezhi-a loose confederation of Indo-European people who had been living in northwestern China until they were driven west by another group.
A number of foreigners came to India in successive waves of migrations between 200 BC and AD 100. These people settled down in different parts of India. They brought with them their own distinct cultural flavor, which, after mixing with the local cultures, enriched the cultural ethos of India. The foreigners who came into India were the Bactrian Greeks (also called the 'Indo-Greeks'), the Parthians, the Sakas, and the Kushans. With the exception of the Greeks, all others came from Central Asia. Under the rule of the Kushans, northwest India and adjoining regions participated both in seagoing trade and in commerce along the Silk Road to China.
The rule of Kanishka, the third Kushan emperor who flourished from the late first to the early/mid-second century A.D., was administered from two capitals: Purushapura (now Peshawar) near the Khyber Pass, and Mathura in northern India. Under Kanishka's rule, at the height of the dynasty, Kushan controlled a large territory ranging from the Aral Sea through areas that include present-day Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan into northern India as far east as Benares and as far south as Sanchi.
Gupta Dynasty
Gupta dynasty was ruled from around 320 to 600 CE and covered most of Northern India. It was one of the largest political and military empires in the world. The time of the Gupta Dynasty is referred to as Golden Age of India. It signaled the emergance of a leader, a Magadha ruler, Chandragupta I. Chandragupta successfully combated the foreign invasion and laid foundation of the great Gupta dynasty, the emperors of which ruled for the next 300 years, bringing the most prosperous era in Indian history. Srigupta I (270-290 AD) who was perhaps a petty ruler of Magadha (modern Bihar) established Gupta dynasty with Patliputra or Patna as its capital.
Samudragupta was perhaps the greatest king of Gupta dynasty. He ruled from around 335 to 380 AD. But the most detailed and authentic record of his reign is preserved in the rock pillar of the Allahabad, composed by Harisena.
Samudragupta's son, Chandragupta II tried to be better than his father, and most historians agree he was certainly successful. Vikramaditya is THE LEGENDARY emperor of India. During his reign India was at the prosperity and luxuriousness, so he also took a title of 'Vikramaditya'. Vikramaditya's reign was perhaps the most prosperous and progressive reign in the entire Indian history.
Vikramaditya was succeeded by his able son Kumargupta I. He maintained his hold over the vast empire of his forebears, which covered most of India except southern four states of India. He ruled from 415-455 AD. He performed the Ashwamegha Yagna and proclaimed himself to be Chakrawarti, king of all kings. During his reign the Gupta Empire was at its zenith.
After Kumargupta I, Skandagupta has succeeded the Gupta Dynasty. When Skandagupta took over the Gupta Empire, he had faced formidable enemies, the Huns. He successfully repelled their early invasions and proved to be able king and administrator in time of crisis. In spite of heroic efforts of SkandaGupta, Gupta empire did not survive long the shock it received from invasion of the Huns and internal uprising of Pushyamitras.
The Classical Age
Harsha's Empire
Harsha or Harshavardhana was an Indian emperor who ruled Northern India for over forty years. He was the son of Prabhakar Vardhan and younger brother of Rajyavardhan, a king of Thanesar. He ruled from 590-647 AD. Harshavardhana made efforts at empire building in the second half of the seventh century. He belonged to the Pushabhukti family, who ruled in Thaneshwar, north of Delhi. Harsha was perhaps one of the greatest conquerors of Indian history, and unlike all of his conquering predecessors, he was a brilliant administrator. He was also a great patron of culture.
His reign is comparatively well documented by his court poet, Bana, who composed an account of his rise to power, Harshacharita. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, Hieun Tsang, who visited India during his reign, also left a lengthy account of his travels. Hieun Tsang noticed that at the time of Harsha, Buddhism was not as popular in all parts of India as he had thought it would be. But in eastern India, it was still popular. Nalanda University was still a famous center of Buddhism. He also recorded the existence of a rigid caste system.
The most significant achievements of this period, however, were in religion, education, mathematics, art, and Sanskrit literature and drama. Soon after Harsha's death, apparently without any heirs, his empire died with him. After Harsha Vardhana North and north west part of India was mostly controlled by Pratihara Kings while Central India and part of South was mostly under Rashtrakutas dynasty (753-973 AD ) Pala Kings (750-1161 AD) ruled the Eastern part of India (present Bengal and Bihar).
The Chalukyas, Pallavas, and Pandyas
After Satvahan, the next great empire in the Deccan was the Chalukya Empire. Pulakesin I, first ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. Pulakesin II was the greatest ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. The Chalukyas built their kingdom on the ruins of the Vakatakas, who in turn had built theirs on the remains of the Satavahanas. They established their capital at Vatapi (modern Badami). The Chalukyas were sworn enemies of the Pallavas and rose to power in Karnataka. The first great ruler of the Chalukya dynasty was Pulakesin I. The kingdom was further extended by his sons Kirtivarman and Mangalesa by waging many successful wars against the neighbours including Mauryans of the Konkans. They were overthrown by a chief named Dantidurga who laid the foundation of the next great empire of Karnataka and Maharashtra, that of Rashtrakutas.
Pallavas established a capital at Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu state) and came to hold sway in the south. Sivaskandhavarman who ruled in the first part of the fourth century CE was an independent ruler. He established his capital at Kanchi which continued as Pallava capital for centuries. Huen Tsang the Chinese monk-scholar, who visited Kanchi in 642 CE, writes that the Pallava country was more than thousand miles in area and calls it Dravidanadu. They were defeated by the Guptas in about 360 AD but continued to rule until the Cholas finally conquered their lands. Later, in the 9th century, the Pallava themselves were definitely conquered by the Chola from Tanjore and became their vassals.
Pandyas were the longest ruling dynasty of Indian history. They ruled the southern most part of India and the capital of the Pandya kings was Madurai (Tamil Nadu). First Indian Ambassador from Pandya Dynasty is sent to Rome in 26 BC. After defeating the kalabhras the Pandya rulers ruled between 550 AD to 950 AD. They were called as first Pandyas. After the fall of the great pallavas and the cholas once again the Pandyas ruled the Tamil country from 1190 AD to 1310 AD. The first Pandyan Empire continued till the beginning of the Tenth Century A.D. The Cholas defeated the Pandyan ruler, Rajasimha II. Later, Veerapandya (A.D. 946-966), the last ruler of the first Pandyan Empire had been defeated and killed by Adhithya Chola. It was the end of the first Pandyan Empire.
Chola Empire
The Cholas are the earliest and the most ancient among the South Indian royal houses. The artifacts of the period found in South India mention Mahabharata as well as Ashokan edicts. They conquered Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Srivijaya, Malaya, and the Maldives islands. They had powerful navy and their marine trade and commerce extended to far east. Their art and architecture have their impact in Sumatra and Java islands of Indonesia, and in many parts of Malaysia.
The two greatest Chola kings were Rajaraja I (reigned 985-1014) who invaded Northern Cyprus and his son Rajendra Cholavarma who reigned from 1014-1044. During their reigns, Chola military expeditions were sent to the Ganges valley and the Malay archipelago, and magnificent temples were built at Tanjore. The revenue of the Cholas came from 'tax on land' and 'tax on trade'. Trade was carried on with west Asia, China and Southeast Asia. The high volume of trade led to the rapid development of towns from the 11th century onwards.
During this period, several regional languages branched off from Sanskrit. Marathi evolved from the local Prakrit, while Tamil, Telugu and Kannada stemmed from a Dravidian root, but owed much to Sanskrit. More important than the kings and their conquests is the cultural and artistic record of those times. The temple was the cultural and social center, where people used to gather.
Pratiharas - Palas - Rashtrakutas
The Pratiharas are believed to be the clan of Rajputs. The greatest ruler of the Pratihara dynasty was Mihir Bhoja. He recovered Kanauj (Kanyakubja) by 836, and it remained the capital of the Pratiharas for almost a century. The Pratihara dynasty started well under the ruler Nagabhatta-I. Though initially he had hiccups with the Rashtrakutas, he was able to leave behind a strong State comprising Malwa, parts of Rajputana and Gujarat. His successor Nagabhatta-II (805 - 839 AD) showed his military capabilities by checking out Muslim advancement and the victory over Andhra, Vidharbha, Vatsa, Sindhu and Kalinga. Towards the end of 10th century, the prestige of the Pratiharas came to and end with the humiliating submission of Rajyapala to Mahmood in 1018 AD. The successors of Pratiharas like Trilochanapala, Yasapala continued reigning for another century.
The Pala empire was founded in 730 AD. They ruled over parts of Bengal and Bihar. Dharmapala (780-812 AD) was one of the greatest kings of the Pala dynasty. He did much to restore the greatness of Pataliputra. The Nalanda University was revived under their rule. The Palas had close trade contacts and cultural links with South-East Asia.
Dantidurga laid the foundation of Rashtrakuta Empire. The Rashtrakuta's empire was the most powerful of the time. They ruled from Lattaluru (Latur), and later shifted the capital to Manyaketa (Malkhed).
The Rajputs
The Rajput who held the stage of feudal rulers before the coming of the Muslims, were a brave and chivalrous race. The name rajputs was originally taken from Raj-Putra i.e. prince or literally "king's son". In actual fact although they were Kshatriyas in the Hindu caste hierarchy, they seem to have genetically descended from the Shakas and Hunas who had invaded north India during the Gupta period and had subsequently settled down in North India and due to their war-like attitudes and been absorbed as Kshatriyas into Hindu society. Prithviraj Chouhan, Maharana Pratap was great rajput kings. According to a mythical narration, the Rajputs originated from the sacrificial fire performed by Vashistha and other saints near the Nakhi Lake on Mount Abu with a view to containing the growing strength of demons.
Vijayanagar Empire
After the departure of Muhammad bin Tughlak from the Deccan, Harihara declared independence. He and his brother Bukka I under the guidance of famous Hindu saint and the head of Sringeri Math, Vidyaranyasvami, who is also identified with the distinguished jurist Madhav Mantri, established the mighty Hindu Kingdom of Vijaynagar (the City of Victory) in 1336 AD. Vijaynagar illuminated the landscape of Deccan History for 229 years (1336-1565 AD). By 1347 AD, Malerajya and Palasige of the Goa Kadambas were incorporated into the Vijaynagar Empire. Goa formed a strategically and commercially important province on the western border of the Vijaynagar Empire.
The Islamic Sultanates
The Mughal emperors were from Afghanistan, northwest of India. Their family came from somewhere else, and they spoke Turkish and Persian, not Indian languages. Even so, they stayed in India and built their power there.
Delhi Sultanate
During the last quarter of the twelfth century, Muhammad of Ghor invaded the Indo-Gangetic plain, conquering in succession Ghazni, Multan, Sindh, Lahore, and Delhi. Qutb-ud-din Aybak, one of his generals proclaimed himself Sultan of Delhi. In the 13th century, Shams ud din Iltumish (1211 - 1236), a former slave-warrior, established a Turkic kingdom in Delhi, which enabled future sultans to push in every direction; within the next 100 years, the Delhi Sultanate extended its way east to Bengal and south to the Deccan, while the sultanate itself experienced repeated threats from the northwest and internal revolts from displeased, independent-minded nobles. The sultanate was in constant flux as five dynasties rose and fell: the Slave dynasty (1206-90), Khalji dynasty (1290-1320), Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413), Sayyid dynasty (1414-51), and Lodi dynasty (1451-1526).
The Mughal Empire
The first Battle of Panipat gave a deathblow to the Lodhi Empire and marked the end of the Delhi Sultanate's rule in India. It led to the establishment of the Mughal Empire in India. Babar defeated Lodi at Panipat, not far from Delhi, and so came to establish the Mughal Empire in India. Babar ruled until 1530, and was succeeded by his son Humayun, who gave the empire its first distinctive features. But it is Humayun's son, Akbar the Great, who is conventionally described as the glory of the empire. Akbar reigned from 1556 to 1605, and extended his empire as far to the west as Afghanistan, and as far south as the Godavari river. Akbar was succeeded by his son Salim, who took the title of Jahangir. In his reign (1605-1627), Jahangir consolidated the gains made by his father. The Mughal Empire survived until 1857, but its rulers were, after 1803, pensioners of the East India Company. The last emperor, the senile Bahadur Shah Zafar, was put on trial for allegedly leading the rebels of the 1857 mutiny and for fomenting sedition.
The Maratha Confederacy
The Maratha Kingdom was founded by Shivaji in 1674. The tiny Maratha kingdom, established by Chattrapati Shivaji was expanded by the Peshwas, who were the Brahmin Prime Ministers. The real credit for expanding the Maratha kingdom goes to Bajirao Peshwa I (1721-1740). The Peshwas subsequently ruled the Maratha Kingdom as defacto rulers. The Maratha Kingdom come end with the defeat of Maratha's by an Afghan army at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
The Kingdom of Mysore
Mysore is correlated to the ruling of the Wodeyar dynasty, Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan though several prominent South Indian dynasties have ruled this place. The traditional founding of the Wodeyar dynasty took place in 1399 with Yaduraya. Since then, 24 rulers have succeeded in the dynasty, the last being Jayachamaraja Wodeyar. Till the year 1610, when Srirangapatna was acquired, Mysore was the center of Wodeyar administration. It became the capital of the Kingdom of Mysore after the death of Tippu Sultan at the end of the Anglo-Mysore Wars in 1799.
The Punjab - Sikh Empire
The Sikhs established their empire in the Punjab after the death of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir in 1707. Charat Singh, who was the head of one of Sikh Clans, established his stronghold in Gujranwala in 1763. Maharaja Ranjit Singh was the most powerful of all the Sikh Rulers and ruled over for complete 40 years. Ranjit Singh was also known as "The Lion of the Punjab," he died of paralysis on the 27th of June 1839. After his death the Sikh Empire was divided into small principalities looked after by several Sikh Jagirdars.
Company Rule & The British Raj
The company first established a toehold in India in 1612, when the Mughal emperor Jahangir granted them the right to establish a trading post (called a factory by the company) in Surat. Later in the century, the British East India Company opened permanent trading stations at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, each under the protection of native rulers. A settlement at Calcutta was established in 1690, again with the permission of the Mughal Empire. The company vied with the Portuguese and rival Dutch, French, and Danish companies. The French set up base along with the British in the 17th century. They occupied large parts of southern India. The British Empire in India - A multiplicity of motives underlay the British penetration into India: commerce, security, and a purported moral uplift of the people. The "expansive force" of private and company trade eventually led to the conquest or annexation of territories in which spices, cotton, and opium were produced.
The Independence Movement
Tuesday, September 07, 2010
MUSIC INSTRUMENTS
MUSIC INSTRUMENTS USED IN INDIA
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| Flute |
Flute is a musical instrument that belongs to the woodwind family and produces a sweet sound. A person who plays the flute is known as a flautist or a flutist. A flute produces sound only when a stream of air is blown through it, which bounces in and out of its numerous holes.
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| Tambura |
Tambura is an Indian music instrument, which is known by the name of tanpura in North India. It is unfretted and round-bodied, with a hollow neck and four or five (rarely six) wire strings. The strings of the tambura are plucked one after another in a standard pattern, in order to create a tonic resonance field Hindustani classical music.
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| Veena |
Veena, also known as Saraswati Veena is a musical instrument of South India. This classical instrument is basically a plucked stringed instrument that is used to accompany Carnatic music. It is essentially a member of the lute family. The Veena has been modified and refined over centuries and has been used since ancient times.
The Violin is not a traditional musical instrument of India. The history of violin does not originate in India. It emerged in its current form in Italy during the 16th century. It was imported from the West and was used with south Indian classical music for the first time during the 18th century.
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| Tabla |
The Tabla is an Indian percussion instrument, which dates back to the times of Persian Muslims. Actually, Tabla forms a major instrument of Indian music. The instrument used to be the part of Classical and Hindustani music, but today it is adding to the flavor of every kind of music, especially jazz.
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| Sitar |
The sitar is often referred as a plucked stringed instrument. The Sitar has delicate strings along with a gourd reverberating hollow generating a rich sound. The great poet, musician and statesman, Amir Khusrau is generally accredited for conceiving Sitar during Khilji period.
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| Shehnai |
The shehnai is a popular musical instrument in India and falls in the category of aero phonic instruments. Shehnai is believed to bring good luck that is why in North Indian marriages and processions Shenani is predominantly played. Shehnai is a tube-like instrument that gradually widens towards its lower end.
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| Nagaswaram |
Nadaswaram is a very famous classical instrument played mainly in the southern states of India. The world's loudest non-brass acoustic instrument, Nadaswaram is also known as Nadhaswaram and Nagaswaram. It is a wind instrument, which is quite similar in its appearance to the North Indian musical instrument, Shehnai.
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| sarod |
The sarod is a popular Indian classical musical instrument. Sarod is similar to the Western lute in structure. It is one of the most important musical instruments amongst followers and connoisseurs of Hindustani classical music. According to many scholars the source of the Sarod seems to be the rebab, a similar instrument that is said to have originated in Afghanistan and Kashmir. It is believed that the sarod is essentially a bass rebab.
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| sarangi1 |
Sarangi is a bowed string instrument typical of Indian subcontinent. Sarangi forms an important string instrument in Hindustani school of classical music tradition. It is said that of all Indian instruments, Sarangi resembles most to the sound of the human voice. The origin of the name Sarangi is very interesting as the word Sarangi has been derived from two Hindi words- sau (which means 100) and rang (color).
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Santoor |
The santoor is a trapezoid-shaped musical instrument. Santoor is usually made of walnut, with numerous strings and is said to be related to the shata-tantri veena of earlier times. A lightweight wooden hammer, used to play the santoor/ santur, is known as Mezrab. To play the Santoor, these mallets (mezrab) are held between the index and middle fingers.
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| mridangam |
Mridangam is a classical percussion instrument much popular in South India. Mridangam is the main instrument that provides rhythm to Carnatic music performances. Mridangam is also known by the name of mridanga, mrdangam, mrudangam and mrithangam. .…
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| Gettuvadyam |
Gettuvadyam is also known as Getchu vadyam or Gethu vadyam. It is a very rare instrument which is played in Southern part of India. Gettuvadyam is 2-3 feet long and is like a hammered lute. The Getchu Vadyam is like tambura which is supported at the neck and has four strings. Sometimes, it is used as the secondary instrument accompanying Mridangam.
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| Chenda |
Chenda is a cylindrical instrument widely popular in Kerala and some parts of Karnataka state of India. It is a percussion instrument and is also called Chende in Karnataka. Chenda usually accompanies Hindu religious art forms of Kerala. As mentioned above Chenda is used as accompaniment for Kathakali and Koodiyattam dances and rituals in Kerala.
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Pakhawak |
The Pakhawak was most well-known northern Indian double skin drum that is used especially for accompanying the old northern Indian Dhrupad style, is the Pakhawaj (simlar to the Mridangam in southern India). The quality of the high-pitched skin is quite similar to that of the Tabla. It is also made of different layers. The Pakhawaj is also tuned like the Tabla with wooden wedges that are placed under the tautening straps. The fine tuning is done on the woven outer ring which is part of the skin. The bass skin is traditionally prepared for playing by a batter of flour and water which is freshly applied each time in order to receive its low-pitched sound.
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| Surbaha |
The Surbahar which is usually tuned a fourth lower than the Sitar, could be called a bass Sitar. Consequently, the Surbahar is significantly longer than a Sitar and also has a wider neck. The full, low sound is especially effective in the quiet, meditative Alap. Also in Dhrupad style its sound pattern is unmatched. Contrary to Sitars, Surbahars are less standardized and are thus available on the market in lots of different sizes and shapes and with different features and decorations. This supports, together with the particular sound pattern, the special individual aura that is attached to this instrument and thus makes it an instrument for individualists and for enthusiasts of special instruments.
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Harmonium |
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| Shrutibox |
The Shrutibox, also called Surpeti, produces a sustained and resonant drone. This instrument is very easy to handle and requires hardly any playing skills. It is mainly used for accompanying singing (overtone singing, chanting etc.). Its functioning is very similar to the Harmonium, however it does not have a keyboard. On both sides of the instrument bellows can be released. The top of the opened bellows is pumped by hand. Inside the instrument, air is pressed through metal reeds which are set vibrating by this. They produce the appropriate sound when the corresponding valve on the outside of the instrument ( the white levers) has been opened. 12 chromatic notes of an octave can be selected by opening the valves and thus make the adjustment to the singing voice possible. For a beautiful, sonorous sound it is recommended to select also the corresponding fifth of the basic note or the lower fourth. But you can also choose any combination of chords you like. When playing the note C the octave is achieved by opening the 13th valve.
For playing, the two bellows that are concealed at the front and the back face of the instrument, have to be released. After that, the valves have to be released or opened by turning the white levers sideways. In doing this, a single drone or, by combining them, full chords can be produced. The pair of bellows that is opening out at the top, is continuously pumped with one hand by which air gets through the body of the instrument and into the second pair of bellows. While doing this, the tone that you have defined by opening the valves, is resonating. You can control the volume a little by pumping more gently or more strongly. Because of the easy handling, you can play the instrument in any desired position, even while walking. You can run a shoulder strap through the upper handle of the instrument.
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| Ektara |
Ek means "one" and Tar means"string". The Ektar or -as it is often called - the Gopi Yantra, is a simple instrument that is mainly used in Bengal as a folk instrument. In some places this instrument is offered in souvenir shops in a very cheap qualitiy. The quality offered by us is much better than that.
The Ektara has a spherical resonator made of dried pumpkin, wood or coconut to which a split bamboo cane is attached as a neck. Into an opening at the bottom of the resonator a piece of leather is set and to this a string is attached. This string runs through the inside of the spherical resonator and between the forks of the bamboo cane up to the top end of the neck and is wrapped around a peg there. The string of the Ektara is plucked with one finger, the pitch can be changed continually downwards by more and more pressing the two halves of the neck together. Thus the keynote here is the highest note of the open string.
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| Swarmandal |
The Swarmandal mainly serves to accompany female singers in India who stroke the open strings with their fingers, similar to harp playing, especially when they want to bridge short intervals. The Swarmandal is tuned to the respective pitch. The Swarmandal on offer from TARANG is stringed with 30 strings. Its body is similar to the zither that is well-known in Bavaria.
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| Sursringar |
The Sursringar is a further beautiful instrument which is almost extinct nowadays. Its neck with a metal fingerboard reminds of the Sarod and somehow one can say its a bass Sarod. In Dhrupad style it was used as a solo instrument in the 19th and 20th centuries. It is regarded as a further development of the Dhrupad-Rabab that has more or less disappeared today. Just like the Surbahar its body is made from a pumpkin that has been cut open horizontally and on which a wooden cover is attached. Onto this cover a flat horn bridge is fixed. The instrument has a second resonant box. The strings that are played with a metal pick are made of steel and bronze.
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| Dilrupa |
The Dilrupa was build and playing technique of the Dilrupa is similar to the Esraj but has in comparison a larger, square resonance box. The Dilrupa is altogether a little bigger than the Esraj. The Dilrupa has 20 strings instead of 15, which produces a richer sound.Just like the Sitar, the basic note Sa is tuned between C and D.
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| Esraj |
The Esraj is a stringed instrument that is mainly popular in Bengal and is used for instance for accompanying Tagore songs wheras it is hardly ever played as a solo instrument in classical Indian music. The Esraj has six playing strings and 15 resonance strings. The neck is equipped with frets as they are found in a similar shape on the Sitar. The sturdy, solid wooden body is covered with goat leather, like the Sarod, which serves as resonance cover. Mounted on this leather cover is a horn bridge which carries the playing strings that are partly steel and partly bronze. The resonance strings also go through the bridge. The Esraj is played with a bow similar to the violin and produces a sound that is rich in overtones and resonance and which reminds of old Renaissance instruments from Europe.
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| Ghatam |
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| madga |
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| GHUNGROOS / FEET BELLS for Kathak and Bharatnatya |
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| KANJIRA / KANJEERA / KHANJIRA |
Kanjira is a small south indian frame drum which is very much related to the family of tambourines. As the traditional lizard skin is prohibited due to protection of species a good meanwhile fromt he Kanjira players more and more accepted alternativ is the goat skin which we offer. There are also opinions from Kanjira players who even prefer the goat skin because they say it is possible to play deeper without breaking the skin. After playing for a while the goat skin gets more and more felxible and is ready for fantastic modulations.
The diameter of the wooden rim is appx. 7 inches. The wooden frame is covered with a goat skin and is aquipped with a pair of jingles on one side for getting a sharp cut sound. Without any tuning the sound of the Kanjira is high. To get good sound out of the goat skin it has to be sprinkled with water on the inner side to get more flexibility. This procedure has to be done very carefully because if one uses to much water the sound gets dull. If it happened one has to wait about 10 minutes to give the skin a chance to get dry again. It needs some experience how much water one should use. The right amount of water supports a fantastic bass sound and a big range of modulation is possible similar as we know it from the tabla. Kanjira also reacts to climatic contitions. Kanjira is traditionally mostly used in the south indian classical music.
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Khol |
The Khol is a double skin drum with a resonating body from northern and eastern India. It is mainly used traditionally for accompanying Bhajans and Kirtans. Its high skin is relatively small with a diameter of about 9 - 10 cm, which gives it a particularly high, piercing sound and it is used where this kind of sound is desirable. In India the Khol is used in folk music, in spiritual songs, Bajans, light classical songs, Kirtans and other devotional songs. The bass skin has a diameter of approximately 20 cm and is coated on the outside with a special paste in order to get a low sound. Both skins have, like the Tabla, a double leather layer at the outer rim. They are tautened by a leather strap.
The normal Tabla finger technique can usually be used. 108 different Taals are available for the Khol. There is a close connection between the way of playing the Tabla and the way of playing the Khol.
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| Thavi |
The Thavil is a large (47 cm long and 30 cm in diameter), heavy and very powerful double drum from southern India. It is traditionally used for accompanying the piercing Nageshwaram at open-air temple festivals. The modern Thavil has a body that is surrounded by a steel ring. The two skins are separately fixed to this ring with leather or plastic straps. The bass skin is struck by a short wooden stick, the high skin with thimbles that are put on the fingertips.
thimbles
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